Purina Lab Animal Care Course

Each research facility shall provide for the training of scientists, animal technicians, and other personnel involved with animal care and treatment in such facility.

AWAR 2013

The U.S. Government Principles, Health Research Extension Act of 1985, and the PHS Policy repeatedly refer to appropriately trained, qualified, and experienced personnel, and availability of instruction and training. The institution is responsible for the training of its staff.

Maloney 2013

Introduction

The two quotes opening this chapter attest to the continued importance of and purpose and requirement for training in laboratory animal science. Moreover, evidence of the support for training in the conduct of research, teaching, and testing at institutions where animals are used has escalated. Since the publication of the first version of this chapter (Kennedy 2002a), the position of laboratory animal trainer has been defined (Kennedy 2002b) and is included on the organizational charts of many facilities. The current edition of the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals (Guide) (ILAR 2011) mentions more than 150 different instances of the word training. Many lab animal societies have incorporated more training offerings into their membership benefits and conferences, most notably the American Association for Laboratory Animal Science (AALAS) and the Institute of Animal Technology (IAT). The European lab animal community, represented by the Federation of European Laboratory Animal Science Associations (FELASA 2015), have proposed revisions and recommendations to enhance their accredited training programs. Several other international laboratory animal organizations""including universities, national societies, and research entities""have modeled their own training programs on these prominent groups.

Increasingly, animal research oversight bodies around the world mandate that individuals who work with animals in research and training settings provide evidence of their knowledge and skill at whatever task they do. This is aligned with the principles of refinement from the 3Rs (replacement, reduction, and refinement), where knowledge obtained through training addresses animal welfare, recognition of pain and distress, and appropriate housing (NC3Rs 2016a). And, whereas the institutional animal care and use committees (IACUCs¹) today have the ultimate responsibility, it is typically the management of the program that is charged with and implements the training. To be clear, as stated in the Guide (ILAR 2011), "the IACUC (or institutional equivalent) is responsible for assessment and oversight of the institution's program components and facilities." Further, "the IACUC is responsible for providing oversight and for evaluating the effectiveness of the training program" (Foshay and Tinkey 2007).

This chapter is written to be both a practical and a conceptual guide for the laboratory animal manager engaged directly or indirectly in training. It is based on and extends the principles of managing training presented in the original chapter (Kennedy 2002a). The practical portion comes first and builds on the train-the-trainer (TtT) structures used to establish a training program, adding passages on the manager's role in developing both cultures and programs of training. In support of practice, educational theories and concepts related to training and applied to training management in laboratory situations are also presented. Using a training metaphor, like learning to drive a car, the immediate want is to get in and go. That may seem to be practical, but it helps to know a little about the car (concepts), even if the driver (manager) is experienced. Thus, with both driving and training, an awareness of several factors can be beneficial: what the drivers need to operate, how the "ride" can be improved, how to avoid accidents, what compliance with the rules of the road means, and so forth.

In 2002, the notion of a facility trainer was novel (Kennedy 2002b). While training itself had been occurring for many decades, the more formalized practice of training in lab animal science was young and developing, having previously been largely a part-time responsibility of someone in the leadership of the lab animal facility (Pritt and Clifford 2014). As these authors noted, lab animal training has evolved in a relatively short time from basic concepts of content to considerations of learning. Previously, the focus was on topics pertaining to "what" should be taught and reiterations of the regulatory requirements to the "hows," meaning educational techniques and ideas for presenting and then evaluating the effectiveness of training. Training now proceeds with the inclusion of all facility staff, from repair personnel to institutional officials, rather than only the select members of the husbandry team. At today's laboratory animal conferences, there are more topics related to educating laboratory animal staff, and increasingly, they are focused on the details of competency and assessment tools, electronic learning management systems (LMSs), English language learners (ELLs), and unique organizational (institutional) models for training.

Alongside this evolution has been the growth of professional training organizations like the Laboratory Animal Welfare Training Exchange (LAWTE), which started in 1994 (Pritt and Clifford 2014; Kennedy 2015). Laboratory animal managers are working side by side with designated trainers, fulfilling training objectives as expressed in the LAWTE mission statement of "expanding animal welfare and enhancing public understanding through effective training and education of animal research professionals" (LAWTE 2015). Doubtless, the many lab animal organizations and programs around the world have contributed to and fostered the concepts of training in vivaria. The reader is referred to the abundance of listings in the appendices.

One perspective on what it means today to be involved with training in a lab animal setting comes from the website of the American College of Laboratory Animal Medicine (ACLAM 2015). While written expressly for veterinarians, the following passage conveniently summarizes the responsibilities for all who are engaged in training, especially facility managers.

As laboratory animal experts, ACLAM Diplomates often teach and train others. This teaching may range from formal classroom instruction to informal training in a laboratory or animal facility setting. Just as the type of teaching can embrace a wide spectrum, so too can the categories of people instructed. Individuals may be fellow scientists, research technicians, or students who are learning techniques of animal experimentation or about the regulations and requirements of an animal care and use program; they may be animal technicians who are learning about the care and use of laboratory animals; or they may be veterinarians, veterinary students, or undergraduate students who are studying laboratory animal medicine, science or management.

Another aspect of teaching involves informing the public about the use of animals in research. Elected representatives, the media, and the general public need to be educated concerning the laws and regulations which protect research animals, the excellent care that is given to laboratory animals, and the great contribution animal research can make to the life, health, and well-being of humans and animals. Because of their expertise, Diplomates have credibility with the public and are, therefore, important members of the institution's public information team.

Having a Foundation in Lab Animal Training

As mentioned, this chapter builds on the preceding version (Chapter 2) from the book Management of Laboratory Animal Care and Use Programs (Suckow et al. 2002). That chapter is in the process of being archived with LAWTE for access and reference in the future. It was written with the theme of TtT underlying the sections because the typical lab animal manager had limited background in training, yet most were obliged to train their own staff and frequently others in the research environment. Managerial skill sets a few decades ago were usually based primarily on animal husbandry, facility management, and human resources (HR)""not training. Over time, new directions and roles involving training have emerged for managers, paralleling additional animal-focused responsibilities. Today, many lab animal facility managers are directly responsible for implementing the training program as part of their duties; they supervise trainers or work closely with a training entity, such as a consultant or institutional training department.

Consequently, this chapter presents training topics more from the perspective of managing a training program and less so from being the actual trainer. Nevertheless, familiarity with TtT topics as a foundation""related to laboratory animal training""will be helpful and potentially abbreviate the manager's learning curve. The following topics are the highlights from the original chapter on training for managers, many of which are updated in this chapter:

• What constitutes training sessions, recognizing that they can be constructed around the 6Ws tool (who, what, when, where, how, and why)

• What the objectives of training are, including regulatory requirements and fulfillment of the principles of the 3Rs (Russell and Burch 1959)

• The ABCs of training, meaning how people act (B for behavior) when they learn something (C for cognition) and feel afterward about what they learned (A for attitude)

• The concept of adult learning, that is, andragogy, as studied and articulated by Professor Malcolm Knowles

• The psychology of learning, in terms of WIIFM (what's in it for me) and Professor Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs, which addressed the intrinsic and extrinsic motivating factors applied to learning

• The numerous sources for developing training curriculum, adapted from several related disciplines within education

• The resources available from laboratory animal science organizations to aid trainers, the types and amounts of which have since increased greatly

• An introduction to computer-based training (CBT), much of which has been eclipsed by today's electronic technologies, known more commonly as e-learning

• The relationships, separations, crossovers, and distinctions between training practices and HR management

• Case studies that explore and introduce training principles as applied to managing the laboratory animal facility

These practices and concepts are still quite valid and functional for use with training in today's lab animal facility. In this chapter, they are made relevant to the current training situations occurring in facilities.

Roles and Expectations of the Facility Manager in the Training Environment

The lab animal facility manager is sometimes held directly responsible for the outcomes of training within the facility. For example, the manager could be the supervisor of one or more trainers, could manage the budget of the training department, or could be a part- or full-time trainer. In these capacities, here is a list of items, any of which the manager could anticipate doing. The reader is encouraged to add others and make a personal list.

• Being engaged with the day-to-day operations regarding training

• Reviewing training records and compiling reports to submit to regulatory agencies or upper management

• Maintaining an LMS, including collection and entry of learner data and information

• Engaging personally in training activities

• Establishing and contributing to the culture of training within smaller departments or for the whole institution

• "Walking the talk" about training, sharing its importance and significance

• Conducting training sessions

• Designing curriculum

• Anticipating and identifying training needs

• Recognizing that not all persons learn the same way, nor do all trainers teach the same way

• Recognizing that training subjects are wide and varied (e.g., consider the different needs for a highly secured lab, a traditional barrier, and wildlife habitats)

• Directly managing the training, which is an active process, or supporting it more passively, as in training management

• Supporting trainers, which includes providing resources, committing time, and helping with coordination

• Facilitating learning, including arranging work time for study, mentoring, and planning

• Enabling learning in both formal (e.g., classrooms and professional conferences) and informal (e.g., spontaneous hallway conversations and e-mailing materials) settings

A facility manager shows leadership in many aspects of laboratory animal operations. Leadership (qualities, characteristics, and actions) may vary depending on specific circumstances and objectives. Sergiovanni (2007), a scholar of educational leadership, has formulated a list of roles, what he calls the five forces of leadership, and how they are applied in environments of educating and training. Here, they are further interpreted for situations in managing lab animal training.

1. The technical force leader in training has the role of management engineer or coordinator. This aspect involves planning, organizing, and scheduling training, which are analogous to the 6Ws tool (Kennedy 2002a, 2016b) of answering the where and when questions. It may be the manager who needs to arrange a place and time for training or offers to host an investigator presentation for husbandry staff or an AALAS activity like a webinar or conference.

2. The humanistic force leader needs to address the personal and human relations issues associated with training. In this role, the manager provides support to trainers and trainees² to meet the training objectives of the institution. The manager may be motivating a group of technicians studying for a certification examination or may be building morale and clarifying for investigators who question the need for required training. The manager who ignores the training needs of colleagues is likely to have a harder time gaining respect.

3. The educational force leader appears in the manager when asked to be a trainer (or a teacher; see the "Is It Education, Teaching, or Training?" section of Appendix 12.1) to share professional and technical experience. Doing so demonstrates being part of the team and an aspect that is not managing all the time (staff may say, "I didn't know she knew how to do that"). Such a manager demonstrates an intimate knowledge of the institution, its equipment, its people, and its purpose. An educational force manager has a different, yet complementary, function to that of a pedagogical instructor in conveying knowledge.

4. The symbolic force leader exemplifies the importance of training. The manager speaks to the impact (e.g., welfare and reproducible data) for both animals and personnel and, when joined with the humanistic force role, the rewards that come from training. Attending celebrations for persons who achieve a training award, participating in training sessions, suggesting and promoting the purchase of training aids, and calling out the teachable moment are all examples of symbolic leadership that is visible to others.

5. The cultural force leader often sets the tone for training, ensuring that learning is part of the culture of the institution. These are examples that show support of a learning culture: (a) emphasizing the need to attend training, despite the day being busier than expected; (b) writing into the budget a request to purchase new training materials; and (c) advocating for the goals to have more staff become credentialed, whether Registered Veterinary Technician (RVT), laboratory animal technologist (LATG), diplomate of the American College of Laboratory Animal Medicine (DACLAM), Certified Professional IACUC Administrator (CPIA), and so forth.

Culture of Training Set by the Manager

Imagine a day before you knew much about working with animals, whether it was your pet to whom you taught a trick or a class you took about laboratory animal science or your first job in the research field. Unknowing, unsure, and unskilled are probably appropriate descriptors. Those situations""and more, as will be discussed""are exactly why training in laboratory animal science is necessary, critical, and warranted.

Despite being well meaning in what we do in animal research, as humans we tend to forget what we have learned, we may be unaware of new regulations or techniques, and we can lose our skills without retraining or practice. Training, offered and supported by institutional management, is often the mechanism to refresh and enhance our capabilities. An improved and strengthened animal care program results, something that all stakeholders""researcher, trainer, administrator, public, and most of all, the animals""can appreciate.

The following is a list of several ways by which the manager, applying the five educational forces, can contribute to and create a culture of training:

• Suggest topics for training sessions.

• Set competency criteria to support husbandry and technical skills.

• Become a member of an organization that provides training (see Appendix 12.5). Offer memberships to staff as well.

• Follow up on training sessions. Ask what happened, what was learned, and how it will be used in the facility. Seek input from those who received the training.

• Send people to off-site training with the expectation of a "report" at the next group meeting. The report can take the form of a written page for distribution, a 5-minute talk, a prepared presentation with slides, a discussion of an item or topic, and so forth.

• Review training records for being current, complete, and relevant to what is needed for the institutional animal program.

• Facilitate the various learning styles of those receiving training; likewise, facilitate evaluation styles.

• Engage in postapproval monitoring (PAM) activities that involve training components.

• Smile at the opportunities, rather than frown, when training obligations are to be met and costs are to be expended.

• Train while wandering around (TWWA), which is a cousin to manage by walking around (MBWA).

• Include training""either attending or presenting sessions""as part of the annual performance reviews for members of staff.

• Consider facility inspections not as a burden, but rather as learning and training opportunities to make improvements.

• Negotiate with staff to get work done so that training can occur (e.g., come in earlier than usual).

• Talk about the training done as a manager, acknowledging that learning is a lifelong process.

The manager often sets the tone, consciously or not, for much in the laboratory animal facility, including the culture of training. By scheduling time into the day for training and making it clear that training is a priority, the manager shows commitment to the program. But, it is not solely in the hands of management on behalf of the institution, IACUC, and others. It is incumbent upon employees to be engaged to identify the opportunities (available time, types of programs, gaps in knowledge, etc.) when they can bring learning into their own work for the benefit of animal research and their organization or company. Further, staff create value when they train themselves in ways that are mutually beneficial with the institution. By engaging with the training culture and processes, staff contribute to the overall mission and provide opportunities for others to gain proficiency and confidence, and contribute to animal welfare. They do not just do their jobs; they participate in teaching, too. Overall, training is part of the quality of a team, its reputation, its capability, and its accomplishments. When management responds to staff training requests and feedback, the culture of training can be enhanced.

Outreach Training

A particular means to develop a culture of learning is to create opportunities and encourage others to be involved in outreach training, which is providing information to those who might not otherwise have access through a training experience. Examples include teaching or talking about laboratory animal science with other departments in the institution, in local K–12 school systems, in veterinary and vet tech college programs, and with civic organizations and similar entities (Benjamin 2016; Kennedy 2016a).

While it is instructing others, outreach training provides a manager or trainer with the learning experience of conveying information to a different audience, as well as instructional practice. As Figure 12.1 shows, teaching and learning are reflections of each other. In fact, it is a Latin proverb, docendo discimus, which literally translates to "We learn by teaching" (https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/docendo%20discimus), but commonly it is understood as "By learning you will teach; by teaching you will learn." Training knowledge and skills can be practiced with outreach training.

Figure 12.1

Mirror images of the terms teach and learn.

An additional benefit of outreach training is to provide school systems support in the STEM disciplines (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics). By conducting outreach in schools, a manager is also reaching out to the potential future workforce (Benjamin 2016).

Training Yourself, the Manager

The manager who attends continuing education (CE) sessions and brings the information back to the institution is sending a message about training""that it is an important way to spend one's work time. Participation in groups geared toward training and managerial development (such as the Laboratory Animal Management Association [LAMA]; see Appendix 12.5), as well as the presentation of posters, case studies, and presentations at regional and national meetings, is another way in which managers can lead by example. Laboratory animal science is a fast-moving field, and the facility manager must prioritize or commit to training, staying abreast of developments in research of all kinds: HR in terms of law and cultures, the technologies of both learning and working, and organizational systems in order to be efficient and capable.

A new manager should plan a training ladder for himself or herself. It is like planning a career ladder that includes self-evaluations to help determine what is needed to progress in the field. It should be recognized as a different paradigm to do training management, compared with the more typical management of people, outcomes, animals, projects, and so forth. Training oneself through resources like a 360° evaluation and books such as The First 90 Days: Proven Strategies for Getting Up to Speed Faster and Smarter by Michael D. Watkins will likely prove fruitful. The 360° feedback evaluation, or multisource feedback, is an exercise taken from industrial psychology and organizational development (Armstrong et al. 2000), where evaluations are received from an individual's work circle. Used in business, it has been applied to the training environment (Armstrong et al. 2000), where the educational leader or trainer is evaluated by the circle of stakeholders that includes students or trainees, peer trainers, and superiors concerned with managing the learning environment. The direct stakeholders involved should be comprised of animal care providers, veterinary staff, technicians, cage wash staff, investigators, administrators, and oversight committee members. Others perhaps interested in training outcomes resulting from 360° evaluations could include regulatory oversight and accrediting agencies, commercial clients, the public, and vendors or suppliers.

Being Engaged with Training

A buzzword associated with establishing a culture, whether for training or another purpose, is the term engaged. Engaged means involvement in something to a high level of commitment. Part of knowing that training has worked is seeing the trainee engaged with what was learned, which can be observed as a demonstration of knowledge or skill, behaving in a way that reflects the training, and expressing internalization of the training. After being engaged with training, a manager should observe that the trainee knows what to do, and does it as expected and with the proper attitude. See also the "Assessment: Measuring Competency and Evaluating Training" section in this chapter.

One of the challenges about managing staff is that not everyone "buys into the corporate culture" or wants to be deeply engaged (Dinkel 2013). This struggle has been especially described for millennials, those born in the 1980s and 1990s (Caprino 2014). In the highly regulated, technologically quick moving, and often emotionally charged discipline of animal research, stakeholders who do not adopt training and accept the importance of training as a continuous process could become problematic for facility managers. Using an approach that can apply to animal care personnel of all ages, Caprino recognized the challenge, saying, "Quit trying to engage millennials." Among her pieces of advice to enhance adoption of training are avoid using the direct term of being engaged, share the obligation of training with the trainees, incorporate computing devices as training tools, and encourage individual thinking on the team, which includes how each person wants to learn. Her words resonate with the learner-focused principles of adult learning too (Knowles et al. 2012).

Training Collaboration between Facility Management and the Oversight Board

The oversight board, herein referred to as the IACUC, of a research animal facility has the responsibility to evaluate the effectiveness of the institutional training program. The management in collaboration with the IACUC ensures that appropriate training (and, as found to be necessary, any remedial or retraining) occurs within the institution as prescribed in the regulations. Communication on such matters is critical for compliance and animal welfare. Members of the IACUC might not themselves conduct the actual training, ensuring instead it is done by other entities, such as the IACUC staff, veterinary staff, managers and supervisors, or a group of trainers. Facility management often does and should assist the IACUC with regard to training in several ways:

• Maintaining records of training that the staff receive and entering relevant data into an LMS

• Keeping training up to date through CE opportunities

• Participating in and initiating training needed by the institution

• Matching training to the activities proposed in the animal study protocol and identifying needs for additional or remedial training

• Informing the IACUC of opportunities made available for training, for example, through announcements received from the organizations, societies, and training partners, as listed in the appendices of this chapter

• Hosting opportunities for training of IACUC members, such as webinars and industry speakers

• Appreciating that training is not only a regulatory obligation that the institution and IACUC are fulfilling, but also one that addresses the welfare of animals, the 3Rs, and the quality of scientific results

• Evaluating the actual performance of various tasks, including surgery and animal care, in the facility and asking one-on-one questions when observing on-the-job training opportunities

• Supporting and demonstrating the IACUC's institutional approach to the competent performance and refinement of animal-related tasks

• Facilitating the learning process by engaging with users of the animal facility

Education Related to Lab Animal Training

Traditional education in the workplace came in the form of the relationship between journeyman and apprentice. This approach was also typical in lab animal training where the experienced manager or senior technician taught the junior technicians. Typical examples could be a session in the break room of the facility for a biology lecture about one of the animals used in the facility or instruction alongside a large piece of equipment in the cage wash area. Such one-on-one educational formats were prevalent for decades, until the advent of CBT, which has become widespread in education""for example, the AALAS Learning Library (ALL 2016) and the Collaborative Institutional Training Initiative program (CITI 2016), and others as listed in Appendices 4 and 5.

The beginnings of lab animal training are traced to the early twentieth century and attributed to veterinarian Simon Brimhall, recognized as the father of laboratory animal medicine. In 1915, Dr. Brimhall joined the Mayo Clinic (Rochester, Minnesota), filling the first position devoted to laboratory animal medicine in an American medical research institution (AALAS 1999; Moreland 1999; Fox and Bennett 2015). Being a new discipline, there was little existing training for anyone. As Moreland wrote (1999), "During the early years these veterinarians relied on their basic education in veterinary medicine, on what they could learn from other biomedical scientists, from one another, and by "trial-and-error.'" Stephens (1999), writing about animal caretakers, said that they too developed their knowledge while on the job""in other words, practical experience. Eventually, for many in the field, "the advantage of training soon became evident." And not long afterwards (in 1950), the forerunner of AALAS, that is, the Animal Care Panel, was founded in part to inform and train those engaged in laboratory animal research.

Today, there are many organizations throughout the world devoted to training (see Appendices 2 through 5). The first recognized lab animal training society is the IAT in the United Kingdom, established in in 1949, which preceded the founding of AALAS by a year (Kennedy 2015). Today, there are laboratory animal science programs at many colleges and universities that confer degrees, certification programs offered by laboratory animal societies, and professional educational programs to train trainers, whether a designated trainer, manager, or training manager.

Since the early part of the twentieth century, various educational movements have been proposed. Among them, an educational theorist named John Dewey emerged as a proponent of the concepts of progressive education (Dewey 1938), which has been widely adopted. Dewey held to the ideas of students realizing their potential, fulfilling their own capacity to learn, and developing abilities from within themselves. This notion was different than the traditional top-down training, that is, from journeyman to apprentice. And it is evident in laboratory animal science, where several programs embody these concepts to promote career advancement closely linked to accumulated, demonstrated, and recognized knowledge and skills.

• Certification for technicians as offered, for example, by AALAS (assistant laboratory animal technician [ALAT], laboratory animal technician [LAT], and laboratory animal technologist [LATG]) (AALAS 2016b)

• Training for managers with the Institute for Laboratory Animal Management [ILAM] (AALAS 2016c) and certification as a Certified Manager of Animal Resources (CMAR) (AALAS 2016b)

• Credential for laboratory animal veterinarians from the American College of Laboratory Animal Medicine as a diplomate (DACLAM) (ACLAM 2015)

• Certifications for animal surgeons, including surgical research anesthetist (SRA), surgical research technician (SRT), and surgical research specialist (SRS), from the Academy of Surgical Research (ASR 2016)

• Credential for IACUC staff known as Certified Professional IACUC Administrator (CPIA), from Public Responsibility in Medicine and Research (PRIM&R 2016)

As a result of the pioneers in laboratory animal training, the varieties and choices for educating and training processes should be greatly appreciated by today's manager of a laboratory animal facility. The people who responsibly work, research, and teach with animals now are products of those processes. The future of training in laboratory animal science was recognized by Stephens (1999), saying that animal care providers "must be on a constant learning curve. We need to make sure that our knowledge and skills develop as our field becomes more technical and specialized, our equipment becomes more sophisticated, and become knowledgeable about additional animal models." Also needing to be addressed in managing training programs are divergent learning styles (e.g., kinesthetic, auditory, and visual), learning challenges (e.g., English learners and hazardous environments), competency evaluations, generational experiences, and international agreements about credentials. National and international credentials and certifications are especially useful in assessing competencies of employees and potential employees. Hiring managers can get a general idea of a candidate's knowledge and skills as related to laboratory science by the credentials that the candidate holds. In addition, in our global industry, knowing what certifications equate from one organization to another is critical. For example, if a technician gained a certification in Europe but is now working in the United States, does his training match the training that would be provided in America? Knowing this can help a manager in assessing what additional training will be needed when moving staff from one location to another. Overall, the entire discipline of""and the various roles of persons engaged in""laboratory animal science must be part of training management in this century.

Andragogy and Learning Styles Revisited

The concepts of adult learning or andragogy were introduced in the first edition of this chapter. It is the recognition that adults learn differently than children. Whereas teachers in the typical K–12 school system are "pushing" content on their students""known as pedagogy""a trainer in an adult environment is facilitating the learning of the content based on the motivation of the students (Kennedy 2014b). In pedagogical models, the learner is dependent on the teacher, who takes most of the responsibility for what is learned and when it is learned. Typically, the teacher has more experience or knowledge of the topic. With andragogy, the learner""generally an adult, but not always""is at the center of the educational processes (see point 4 about orientation in Table 12.1 and Figure 12.2). Both approaches are important in lab animal training, to the extent that managers should recognize when it is probably better to use one before the other.

Table 12.1

Assumptions about Adult Learning (Andragogy) Based upon Knowles.

Figure 12.2

Six assumptions or principles of Knowles's andragogy.

Dr. Malcolm Knowles (the son of a veterinarian and a lifelong engaged learner) is regarded as the father of andragogy (Knowles et al. 2012). Knowles's ideas of adult learning, first proposed in the 1970s, included just four assumptions or principles contributing to the theory. But as it developed, Knowles later decided to include the aspects of motivation and needing to know (assumptions 5 and 6 in Table 12.1). Ironically, many managers might think these two should have been his first thoughts about adult learning. Figure 12.1 shows the theory graphically. The table summarizes Knowles's key assumptions about andragogy.

Andragogy is different from pedagogy because the assumptions focus more on the learner than on the content. For a trainer, that does not mean they are mutually exclusive. Rather, they should be thought of as an instructional continuum, and both may be utilized in the same training session. For example, when teaching about safety, personal protection, and animal biosafety levels (ABSLs), it is entirely appropriate for the trainer to be content based, emphasizing facts and evaluating the rote memorization of such principles. When the training addresses gowning procedures in ABSL 2–4 environments, the trainer probably should allow the student to experience the processes independently, before being corrected to use safer practices (reference Knowles's assumption 1 related to the foundation in Table 12.1).

Another example of the instructional continuum is the use of case studies of animal diseases. In this training, the instructor passes out a report from a relevant journal for the class participants to read and contemplate. These directions are pedagogical in nature, but discussion of the health concerns, diagnostic tests, differentials, and so forth, is based on problem-solving models, and thereby demonstrates andragogy and higher-order cognitive application.

Knowles's assumption 5 about motivation in learning reflects a specific meaning and purpose in lab animal training. Recall that regulations (AWAR 2013) and guidelines (ILAR 2011) associated with conducting animal research require training. A question that both trainers and managers of training need to ask is, what kind of motivation is influencing the adult learner? Is it the mandate of the administration demanding training, the fear of a regulatory citation, the wish to be promoted, a new technology with an animal, an interest in the research, achieving certification or licensure, or something else? The answers should be considered by management when developing and evaluating training sessions in order to make the best use of resources dedicated to training. And the answers should be placed in the context of two other concepts of what motivates adults to learn, which are Maslow's hierarchy of needs and WIIFM. These are respectively models of where in terms of life is the learner at the time of learning and what will the learner obtain from the learning. The manager who ignores these concepts will probably find it more difficult to instill a culture of training and to achieve acceptance of training from individuals. Instead, and more effectively, the manager should be using these management concepts as contributions to the structuring of training around the needs and abilities of the trainees, as well as those of the institution.

There are actually many learning styles and strategies that trainers and managers can use to engage learners (Hawk and Shah 2007). It is critical when managing training to recognize individual learning preferences. A common one is the kinesthetic, visual, and aural style, probably best known as feeling or touching, seeing, and listening. Another is the notion of active and passive learning (Tweed 2014), which recognizes the variable style of both the learners and the trainers (Figure 12.3). On some occasions, an active learner may become passive with an active trainer because of subtle personality or cultural conflicts. In another learning environment, the passive learner may be drawn into greater activity because of the types of active learning tools used by the trainer (Figure 12.3). Dobrovolny et al. (2007), Kennedy (2002a), and Knowles et al. (2012) describe other styles and provide additional resources to create learning environments and promote learning, which the manager can share with the individual primarily responsible for training. Utilizing most or all these tools in a training program will increase learning and learner interest. It is well recognized from educational research (Handelsman et al. 2007) that active learners take more responsibility for their learning when engaged in problem solving, group work, mapping (hand drawing), and other activities, like how we participated and learned as children (pedagogy).

Figure 12.3

Tasks associated with active and passive learning, which build upon themselves.

Appreciating Cultural Differences and How We Learn

Many different species are represented in the vivarium, being used as research models for multitudes of purposes. Yet only one species, Homo sapiens, has the responsibility and task to care for them, and we are just as diverse. As much as the mouse and monkey have different husbandry requirements, there are differences among the cultures of vivarium personnel that also need to be recognized and appreciated by those responsible for training them.

• Cultural competence: Pritt et al. (2014) described the concept of cultural competence""or cultural intelligence""as applied to laboratory animal science. The terms mean the "set of behaviors, knowledge, and attitudes among professionals that foster effective work in cross-cultural situations." To embody cultural competence "requires a willingness to learn about others' traditions, characteristics, language, behavior, and other attributes in order to interact effectively with others at work" (Pritt et al. 2014). With awareness of such differences in culture, the manager and the trainer may need to modify how the evaluations of performance are conducted to assess outcomes in training situations. For example, the trainer should recognize that some trainees demonstrate their knowledge better verbally than through written summaries.

• Diversity: Alworth and colleagues (2010) addressed the challenges presented by the variety of persons working in laboratory animal science, which heretofore has received only minimal attention. Specific examples were cited: Cultural and religious attitudes on multiple topics may vary among personnel and affect interactions. Attitudes regarding animals can differ, such as what level of respect they deserve and whether certain species cannot be handled. Different attitudes about the appropriate way to interact with coworkers based on their sex, age, race, sexual orientation, and other attributes may cause friction among personnel. Their article included several suggestions and lab animal industry programs to increase awareness and provide solutions. Many of the concepts are crossovers between and combinations of traditional management and training, about which the facility manager should be cognizant.

• Generational: Those individuals born between 1977 and 1994, also known as millennials, gen Y or generation Y, are described (Dinkel 2013; Caprino 2014) as having always learned in the digital age, being savvy with computers, smartphones, and other technological devices. For them, information is obtained and delivered easily and quickly from electronic sources, such as the Internet or web. Their expectations for training differ from those of their predecessors""the baby boomers and the Xers. Managing their training includes utilizing educational games, long-distance and connected learning, tailored instruction, and training on the fly.

• Scientific or research language: English has emerged as the primary language for science and business. Yet while walking through the corridors of a vivarium or research lab, scores of other languages often will be heard. Journal articles are still published in many other languages, even though there are electronic means to instantly translate them. At conferences, many languages will be heard and papers are often presented in native languages. Moreover, the vernacular of science is almost another language, where words and phrases can be confusing if not defined and explained. Trainers must pay attention to this possibility and evaluate the three components of a language""what is read, what is said, and what is heard""in their training materials. There is so much brain activity while translating, it could be a distraction to comprehension for the learner.

• English as a second language (ESL): Nonnative English speakers (NNESs) work in many roles at laboratory animal facilities, where they need to learn both the job and the language. The manager will need to address training topics with them. Only recently have various authors begun to analyze this challenge in laboratory animal settings, despite the efforts with ESL students in schools over several decades. Hughes (2014) provides tips to consider, as shown in Table 12.2, in the context of managing NNES staff, which led her to analyze the situation and develop successful approaches (Hughes 2013; Sherly 2014). Pritt et al. (2014) made many of the same suggestions and, in echoing Hughes's point 1, say that adjusting the pace of training may be effective for some NNES.

Developing a Training Program

Perhaps you are a manager tasked with developing a training program for your animal care and use program. Maybe you find yourself inaugurating or creating one from scratch. It is conceivable that a decision was made to enhance or expand the existing program because of a recommendation by an outside entity (e.g., AAALAC International or a regulatory agency). Either way, you are faced with designing the learning specifications unique to your situation and institution; fortunately, there are resources to help.

Modifying or starting a new program can be challenging. The first suggestion is to obtain the "buy-in" of other managers and administrators as appropriate in the groups to be supported. The IACUC should also be on board with the proposed training program, making sure there is an understanding of the regulations requiring training and the need to ensure that anyone who works with animals is properly trained and competent in the skills they are performing. Related to this approach is to ensure that all recognize how the training program will help them to be in compliance. Keep in mind that the manager is often there to manage the process.

The Committee on Educational Programs in Laboratory Animal Science published a guide in 1991 with a section (V) on how to develop, deliver, and evaluate an educational program. While dated, it will be useful to initiate the process and compel the answering of training-related questions pertinent to your institution. The publication noted that "the IACUC and the course coordinator are responsible for developing clear objectives for each phase of the training program." So, the manager is not alone in these efforts. Furthermore, it is emphasized that "these objectives must incorporate both federally mandated and institutional requirements" (Committee on Educational Programs in Laboratory Animal Science 1991). Accordingly, the combined effort depends on others to help define what is needed in the training. Finally, "the methods for presenting the material will depend on the audience, the objectives that have been set, the nature of the content and the resources available" (Committee on Educational Programs in Laboratory Animal Science 1991). Thus, there are some boundaries to be considered and set for a training program.

The literature on laboratory animal technology has started to include accounts and case studies of training program designs. Heenan (2010) described a program developed with the objective to standardize training given to rodent handlers. The concept included identifying a person from investigator laboratories to be responsible for coordinating animal activities within that research group. Lockworth et al. (2011) found a benefit and improvement in animal care after providing specialty training to veterinary care technicians and husbandry staff. Dyson and Rush (2012) reported on their success involving lab animal veterinarians, who designed, implemented, and provided training sessions for research personnel.

As mentioned throughout this chapter, several lab animal organizations, like LAWTE, LAMA, IAT, and AALAS, provide information about developing training programs particular to the animal perspective. For general training ideas, a Google search with the terms "Developing a training program" will produce thousands of hits that can be scanned and searched for ideas and details. Well known is the organization Association for Talent Development (ATD), which is the former American Society for Training and Development (ASTD), which has assisted trainers in many disciplines, some of which align to laboratory animal science. Among these resources, the manager will be able to find the information needed in order to feel capable to take on training tasks. Nevertheless, additional help in the form of a checklist, based on a user's actual experience, and considerations for hiring a training company on a consulting basis are provided in this chapter.

Checklist for the Training Manager

While conceptualizing a training program for an institution, one facility manager devised the scheme shown in Box 12.1, categorizing the various concerns of the stakeholders with questions that needed to be answered in order to fulfill the specific objectives of the animal care and use program. Is it complete? No. An initial plan seldom is, because it will be modified with new information that reflects design changes and implementations as they get done. Nevertheless, it is a list of questions that can be utilized by any training manager, whether beginning or modifying an established training program.

Summary of Who Needs Training and What They Need

Lest the lab animal manager feel overwhelmed by the responsibilities in training, recall that institutions are responsible for providing appropriate resources to support personnel training (Anderson 2007), and the IACUC is responsible for providing oversight and for evaluating the effectiveness of the training program (Foshay and Tinkey 2007). All program personnel training should be documented (ILAR 2011). There are many aspects to training that fall within the realm of the IACUC; thus, a full appreciation of all the regulatory needs must be gained by consulting other references.

Maloney (2013) described during an Office of Laboratory Animal Welfare (OLAW) webinar who needs training in laboratory animal research, training, and testing.

Minimum requirements under the PHS Policy indicate those who are responsible for housing, feeding and care of the animals used, as well as those who will be conducting procedures on live animals, all require training. The Policy also discusses proper constitution of the [Institutional] Animal Care and Use Committee and the general training and experience required for each type of member. This includes: the veterinarians and other professional staff such as pathology, imaging, and behavioral professionals; animal care personnel such as the clinicians and husbandry staff; the research team including principal investigators, study directors, technicians, post-doctoral fellows, students, and visiting scientists; and last but not least, the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee itself.

Other key personnel, such as the institutional official and occupational health and safety professionals, may require training in order to succeed in their roles. Numerous other types of personnel may be involved as well""either directly or indirectly""in the animal program and it would be best practice to ensure these people receive appropriate training. Other personnel may include: administrative staff such as the IACUC support team; those involved in animal transportation both at the shipping and receiving ends; facilities personnel including those responsible for design and renovation of animal facilities; engineering staff; maintenance and custodial staff; and security personnel. And when considering the requirement for a contingency or disaster plan, institutions may find it beneficial to include emergency management personnel in the training program""and this may involve both institutional and local fire and law enforcement officials. And finally, program administrators might consider including their institutional human resources management and legal professionals in the training roster.

What Topics Should Managers Include in Training?

Of course it is not practical, but the answer should be everything. Another possible way of phrasing the question is, what should a trainer leave out? That is equally difficult and challenging to answer, but the response could be "it depends on the needs of the institution." And from a practical standpoint, there are general requirements as described in the Animal Welfare Act and Regulations (AWAR) and Guide that must always be included. The Guide has it right where it says (ILAR 2011) that "the number and qualifications of personnel required to conduct and support a Program depend on several factors, including the type and size of the institution, the administrative structure for providing adequate animal care, the characteristics of the physical plant, the number and species of animals maintained, and the nature of the research, testing, teaching, and production activities." Furthermore, the Guide advises, "Educators and trainers can use the Guide as a document to assess both the scope and adequacy of training programs supported by the institution."

The traditional curriculum for training in laboratory animal sciences would include, at a minimum, the following: occupational health, surgery, anatomy, physiology, regulations, species-specific characteristics, health and disease, sanitation, genetics, and more. Every lab animal program will add to and subtract from this (and the managers reading this chapter should do the mental exercise), as they address what is relevant and appropriate for the conduct of research, testing, and teaching with animals. And that is the point: animal facility managers are among those who have the responsibility to identify the needs specific to their programs""as such, it is part of the culture of training.

What is stated in the Guide yields another definition of lab animal curriculum:

The institution should provide appropriate education and training to members of research teams""including principal investigators, study directors, research technicians, postdoctoral fellows, students, and visiting scientists""to ensure that they have the necessary knowledge and expertise for the specific animal procedures proposed and the species animal care and use program used (Conarello and Shepard 2007). Training should be tailored to the particular needs of research groups; however, all research groups should receive training in animal care and use legislation, IACUC function, ethics of animal use and the concepts of the Three Rs, methods for reporting concerns about animal use, occupational health and safety issues pertaining to animal use, animal handling, aseptic surgical technique, anesthesia and analgesia, euthanasia, and other subjects, as required by statute.

While the previous passage would seem all-encompassing, there are several topics that are not typically included in a lab animal science curriculum. Some might increase in importance during the next decade and deserve more attention. Today's lab animal manager should be aware of the following:

• Animal behavior: Operant conditioning with animals to gain their participation in procedures has been demonstrated in a number of species. Samples and data can be obtained with much stress for both the animals and investigators. Training must be obtained in order to perform "positive reinforcement training (PRT) methods which reward desired behavior," which has "become a valuable tool for the humane care and use of laboratory animals" (NC3RS 2016b).

• Communication with the public: The ability to present to the public what is discovered in research is critical. The public often supports the work financially, yet is challenged to understand it. Science moves quickly and transparency has become a buzzword. Dissemination of research findings comes in the form of traditional publications and presentations, as well as webinars, websites, videos, and town hall meetings. Depending on institutional policies, it may be incumbent for managers to communicate what we do in schools, governmental hearings, and other venues for public outreach. Furthermore, whereas English is the primary language of science, cultural shifts and employment practices indicate the need for both digital communication and non-English languages.

• Animal welfare: In the last decade, the American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA), the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons, and the Australian and New Zealand College of Veterinary Scientists have established distinct credentials to recognize those persons specializing in animal welfare. According to the AVMA website (www.avma.org), the American College of Animal Welfare (www.acaw.org) offers certification to veterinarians successfully completing advanced education and training to become animal welfare specialists.

• Ethics: Indeed, ethics have taken an even greater foothold in the animal facility (Dinkel 2012). Training embodies the ethical responsibility we have when conducting animal research, testing, and teaching (King 2004). Animal ethics, as broad a topic as that is, is explored in depth elsewhere in this book. The future animal facility managers will need to be trained and conversant, from Aristotle to the 3Rs to the emerging legislation resulting from law school students studying in the newly emerging discipline of animal ethics.

• Robotics: More and more equipment in the facility is being operated or monitored by robots and computerized devices, supported by computer-controlled interfaces and, to some degree, artificial intelligence. In a way similar to the integration of trainers in vivaria, personnel with an understanding of computers and mechanics will be (are) needed in the cage wash area, at the research bench, and with data management systems.

• The 3Rs: Education and training in the laboratory animal facility has increasingly embraced the principles of refinement, reduction, and replacement as outlined by Russell and Burch (1959) in The Principles of Humane Experimental Technique (Nevalainen 2004; Guhad 2005; Franco and Olsson 2014). The Johns Hopkins University Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing advocates that "the concept of recognizing, minimizing, and eliminating pain and distress in laboratory animals should be included in training programs for all persons involved in the care and use of laboratory animals" (Zurlo et al. 2016). The application of the 3Rs, especially as applied to refinement, is demonstrated by more frequent training agendas at conferences that share improvements on techniques involving animals and, by a wider choice, of inanimate models to replace live animals in training sessions. Training and the Rs have become part of the institutional culture of using laboratory animals. However, King (2004) noted the knowledge gap of "the lack of existing research data comparing the educational value of alternative, with traditional animal-based, instruction methods." This presents a challenge to trainers and managers in laboratory animal science.

• Veterinary care technicians and husbandry staff development: Pritt and Duffee (2007) advocated that animal care providers receive "a strong training program on diverse topics according to staff duties." Their recommendations for topics included ethics, regulatory compliance, and "species-specific biology and behavior, animal facility equipment and operations, animal health procedures, animal research policies, occupational health and safety equipment and practices, computer usage, training, and management." Lockworth et al. (2011) presented a case report where the roles and responsibilities of veterinarians, veterinary care technicians, and husbandry staff were modified to accommodate the expansion of a rodent program. With the backing of management, a training program was designed for technicians to become more engaged, from simply identifying health issues to actually making decisions for treating and euthanizing rodents. This training program empowered (following the principles of andragogy) all team members and resulted in a staff that could provide consistent, high-quality veterinary care more efficiently.

• Those not trained: It has been mentioned that the facility manager will often be called on to assist the IACUC in the institutional obligation to train. Benoit and Bayne (2005) addressed those persons who, for various reasons, may not be "captured" (called the forgotten by them) through traditional channels as needing training. Specifically, it may be the visiting scientist or summer student who has not been identified but suddenly appears one day working in the facility. The manager will need to decide how to handle the situation""for example, by engaging another approved user from the same laboratory group, curtailing the animal activity, contacting the IACUC, or documenting and reporting the incident""all the while managing the lack of training incident from a HR perspective.

What Does the Training Cost?

High among the concerns of a manager is how to pay for products and services, which includes training. Conversely, the question needs to be asked by managers, what would, or could, it cost if there is no training? Phrasing that differently, the cost of doing it wrong is just too much""and reflects poorly on facility management.

Managers acknowledge that money is needed for the purchase of training materials (e.g., AALAS 2016a), attending conferences, subscribing to journals and webinars, holding memberships with training organizations, and so forth. The cost of these items can add up quickly. Other costs may be less apparent, but they are still quite visible under examination. For example, they include the salary for a trainer and trainee, the items used in developing curriculum, and the rooms where training occurs.

Some hidden costs may not even be apparent, but nevertheless have an impact on the overall animal use and care program when training is inadequate. Consider these scenarios:

• The extra time taken by a PI to write a protocol or by the IACUC to review one that is not well written and is not complete

• The losses from procrastination or personal grief (recall the ABCs of training) associated with a task that is not well learned and consequently is not conducted properly or perhaps not at all

• The health effects resulting to either an animal or staff member that manifest long after an exposure because the user had not learned correctly how to use personal protective equipment initially

• The issues, expenses, and cost of public relations following the revelation that an animal has been mistreated or an untreated hazard has left the facility

• The cost to institutional prestige and reputation following preventable losses, and consequently grant proposals being awarded elsewhere

The facility manager should consider that training is protective and should be bought as a precaution, much as we do with insurance. DeOrnellis (2013) wrote, "As such, trained individuals may be likened to an insurance policy, "purchased' by the institution, to mitigate some of the risk associated with in vivo research. But an important distinction between insurance and training needs to be made. An insurance policy never improves an individual's position; it can only protect the individual from disaster. Insurance equals risk mitigation. A strong training program also mitigates risk, but unlike an insurance policy, training can improve an institution's animal care and use program."

The cost of doing it wrong is just too much! This expression needs to be repeated in lab animal training sessions. Trainers, those responsible for PAM, and facility administration should look for ways whereby training can help to improve animal well-being and increase efficiencies in facility activities. Good managers have a direct line of communication with most aspects and stakeholders of the animal care and use program, and therefore they are a unique resource for issues where training could be helpful to correct a problem.

At times, it is appropriate for managers to calculate the return on investment (ROI) for training. Training is an expense item that can be measured. How much benefit came back when a training session was held, whether it was at a conference to which staff traveled or it was a trainer hired to do on-site training? How much contact time was there? Did staff learn "after hours" during the conference? Were staff talking after the contracted trainer left about what was learned? Such a calculation involves factors other than just dollars or euros paid.

If the institution is fortunate to have a dedicated training center, is it also considered a cost center in terms of administration and budgeting? Costs associated with training are in most cases better tracked when there is a cost center, so that training activity is accurately measured, and it has associated line items in the facility or institutional budget. Besides accounting for the money spent, the training coordinator can track staff members trained, store training materials, survey users, and provide on-demand training.

The concept of cost accounting in relationship to training should not be regarded only from a negative perspective. Consider these concepts, each of which contributes to the overall culture of training evolving at the research institution:

• The ROI means staff perform work more efficiently.

• Facts are retained, or it is known where they can be looked up.

• Through discussions in and after class and training sessions, better animal-related practices are suggested.

• Full training records, meaning large files with frequent training encounters, elicit kudos from visitors (including regulatory inspectors and AAALAC International) to the animal facility.

• Trainers become acquainted with members of the research team, and their relationship is positive, not confrontational.

• The newly recognized skills and knowledge of lab animal staff can be utilized by the training staff.

Methods That Managers Use to Accomplish Training In-House

Educational methods include storytelling, discussion, teaching, training, and directed research. In school, we expect to learn from teachers, who often practice pedagogy, which is the giving of information based on established traditions and norms of a broader scope of education. Traditionally, the process of instruction or teaching has been conducted through rote learning. Managers and trainers in laboratory animal science should be asking themselves when and where this model is appropriate. Probably, it can work well in preparation for a certification examination, but will it suffice for tasks like surgery and cage washing?

Training is said to be the education one receives when specializing in a field. Moreover, it is the practical application of knowledge acquired (Paschal 2013), based on the needs of the student or learner, which distinguishes training from teaching. Because training is often associated with what adults want or need to learn, it has frequently been referred to as adult-learning education, or andragogy (Knowles et al. 2012).

Knowledge is the factual information or the skill set obtained through experiential learning (e.g., on the job) or a formal educational process (e.g., in a classroom setting) (Oxford 2015b). Appropriate use of training or educational methods is often the goal of the specific audience and in-house training content.

E-Learning in Laboratory Animal Science

Of the many advances in managing animal facilities, those in information technology are among the most impressive. Great amounts of data can be collected and stored without paper. Information can be sent and received within a single centralized facility or exchanged with colleagues elsewhere in the world within seconds. This has benefitted training as well through the discipline of e-learning.

The social media of the twenty-first century started in lab animal science as electronic blackboards. Credit is given to Dr. Ken Boschert at Washington University (St. Louis, Missouri) for his vision of working with AALAS to establish a means by which lab animal professionals could exchange information""thereby training one another. This became CompMed (AALAS 2016d)""a unique community of users providing electronic sharing of knowledge, coverage of comparative medicine and laboratory animals, resources, opinions, and so forth.

Webinars are available at all times, both at the first showing and in the archives of the provider. They are a means to obtain focused information on many topics pertinent to operating a laboratory animal facility. Often complimentary, vendors share their latest products and federal agencies inform about the latest regulatory changes via webinars. Members of lab animal societies can watch webinars for free as a member benefit or at a discounted cost. Refer to the appendices at the end of this chapter to find organizations providing these e-training opportunities.

The libraries and curricula of the electronic "classrooms" devoted to laboratory animal science, such as the ALL (www.aalaslearninglibrary.org) and CITI (www.citiprogram.org), have increased significantly in the last decade. Both represent worthy subscription resources for learning about and obtaining training in laboratory animal science disciplines. Lab animal managers must be cautioned not to simply direct staff to take the classes, however. This information is primarily knowledge-based content with minimal demonstrations of skills. Competency and capability with the application of facts and utilization of skills should be assessed by the institution. Recalling the driving metaphor, because an individual has watched a video about driving a car does not mean he or she will be able to proceed down the road without incident!

The advantage to training material archived on the web is that it can be accessed any hour of the day, it can be watched any number of times, and it can give time to the trainer for personalized training instead of conducting rote training sessions. Unlike the libraries of videotapes that facilities used to buy and keep in a static manner, media on the web can be immediately updated to current knowledge. The astute facility manager involved with training will be aware of and evaluate such benefits.

Another feature of e-technology is the development of LMSs. This is software that accumulates into a database the training records and experiences of staff. Commercial examples include Moodle, Canvas, Blackboard, Google Classroom, and Compliance Wire. Selecting, installing, and maintaining an LMS may require the assistance of the institution's computer and information technology group.

An LMS is informative for reminders about training that needs to be periodically retaken and to quickly identify who among staff are experienced with a technique or an animal model. Managers will find an LMS useful in several ways. Imagine one that extracts from the rÁ©sumÁ© of a new hire all of her capabilities and puts them into a personnel record, onto which all additional training is recorded, so that all of her training or expertise is available to the manager. Imagine the LMS that ties into an electronic protocol system, such that entering the name of Technician Tom automatically populates a document (e.g., a protocol or grant proposal) and informs the IACUC that he is qualified to work with the specific animals on that study. Imagine the institutional library that can be built within an LMS for PowerPoint presentations, conferences attended, guest speakers heard, webinars attended, certifications achieved, and so forth. With an LMS, the Guide (ILAR 2011) requirement that "all program personnel training should be documented" may be more easily satisfied.

Choosing an LMS takes its own set of skills and project planning. Knowing exactly what the organization needs or wants the LMS to do is critical from the outset, to which the lab animal manager should contribute. A simple program that lists training and competencies is easy to manage and easy to install. A more complex system that documents standard operating procedures (SOPs) review, hands-on training, classroom training, CBT, and so forth, takes much more time both to set up and to manage. A dedicated trainer or training staff will need to have time in their schedule to manage the LMS. The benefits of a more complex system, though, can be immeasurable. It can improve both compliance and standardization of training across large organizations. A well-organized and thought-out LMS can be set up with curricula for many different job roles. These jobs can send reminders to learners when training is due, store CBT modules, alert managers when training is delinquent, generate transcripts for animal program reviewers (e.g., inspectors), and more. Be aware that one can only get out of the LMS what one is willing to put into it. Organizations that cannot dedicate personnel to manage the training program and LMS would probably be better served with a simpler LMS.

E-learning is one of the buzzwords of training now. Bound paper books to read, plastic animal models to manipulate, and hands-on physical labs to conduct still have a function. But, the online Portable Document Format (PDF), computerized body systems, and virtual labs of almost all procedures embody the 3Rs for training purposes. The workforce (the millennials or generation Y) entering biomedical research in 2017 have had these learning experiences since kindergarten. Trainers and managers who do not integrate e-technologies will be behind the e-learning curve.

There are many pieces of educational software that can aid trainers in conveying information about laboratory animal science. The fast developments in the field preclude mentioning extensive software systems. Nevertheless, laboratory animal facility managers and trainers might use the two below as examples for fostering learning:

• Poll Everywhere (www.polleverywhere.com) is a tool to engage audiences from large to small in a training session (Kennedy 2014c). It can be used as an icebreaker to open a training session or as an assessment tool for longer training sessions. Using either a mobile phone or a computer, the student participants respond to questions either posed in the application or embedded in a PowerPoint. Results are displayed instantaneously, bringing "quiet" or passive learners into the presentation.

• Padlet (www.padlet.com) is similar to Poll Everywhere. Its capability is that it can collect postings made to a preset web page established by the trainer. For example, an assignment, consisting of five standard questions, can be given during a training session to characterize a particular lab animal research model. The learners""singularly or in groups""can complete the tasks in real time and post their work for all to see and compare with oversight by the trainer.

Managers and trainers need to be cognizant of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) requirements with e-learning materials to provide access to information resources. Compliance with this law is important for training a diverse staff. An example standard is Voluntary Product Accessibility Template (VPAT), used in the California State University system (CSU 2015).

Position of Trainer

In the last century, the position of a trainer in a laboratory animal facility was a somewhat rare entity. Certainly, there were persons who trained, like managers, but they tended to have other primary responsibilities. Their jobs were not devoted entirely to training, and so they had to carve out the time each day and week to educate both users of the facility and themselves. Many benefitted from the educational opportunities provided by national and regional AALAS meetings. LAMA, established in 1984, addressed many of the training responsibilities of managers, while LAWTE, established in 1994, was created to help empower staff with their training responsibilities.

Momentum has built for "named" trainers in facilities. In 2002, Kennedy published a model position description for a lab animal trainer. More trainers and more facilities with trainers are visible in the laboratory animal field. Although there is no database of trainers, it is reasonable to think that there is at least one trainer, part- or full-time, in every laboratory animal facility. Calculating an estimate for the United States, it is possibly 1500–2000 trainers, based on almost 1000 USDA-registered facilities, 1300 Public Health Service (PHS)–assured institutions, and more than 900 AAALAC-accredited institutions (like a Venn diagram, the numbers will overlap). This estimate is supported by the number of persons participating with LAWTE, which in 2015 had a global membership exceeding 300 persons and more than 800 subscribers to its complimentary listserv, which shares training topics (Kennedy 2015). The Laboratory Animal Facility Compensation Survey conducted by AALAS in 2014 reported that 50 individuals held a position where training was their primary task (AALAS 2014).

Today's laboratory animal facility trainer could be a member of the vivarium staff, the training department, the veterinary medicine department, or the IACUC or equivalent oversight ethics committee. Directing the individuals and their appropriate efforts with the institutional program in mind is often the role of the laboratory animal science manager.

The Manager Who Trains

Sometimes the lab animal facility manager is also the trainer, particularly in smaller facilities. In that circumstance, there are advantages, such as knowing the capabilities and capacities of the staff, knowing what specific experience (knowledge) or skill is needed for a project, and knowing what resources are available for training. A special benefit is finding teachable moments, which is when a manager spontaneously recognizes a situation as an opportunity to train on something being discussed for other institutional purposes.

While the dual role of manager–trainer is efficient in terms of institutional resources, the circumstance has the potential to decrease the resource availability of that person. This dual role may undermine individual capabilities as a trainer because of more pressing responsibilities as a manager. For example, consider the scenario of assigning, as the manager, the task of processing a delivery of animals instead of conducting a scheduled training session. Another is the awkwardness that arises when a manager addresses a difficult HR issue with an employee, which upsets both, and later the disciplined staff member attends a training session led by the manager.

Contracting Training

In recent years, it has become possible to hire trainers and training on a contractual basis. Several companies have made it part of their business to offer training on a fee-for-service basis. In other situations, training is a line item among many services provided in a contract by a full-service animal care company, such as veterinary care, cage changing, and cage washing. As with other contracts in the animal facility, the manager often negotiates the specifics and should sort the details of training services as well. Recalling the 6Ws process, they can be defined. Who will receive the training""staff only or all employees of the institution? Where will training occur""at the site of the contracted company or the institution? What will the training consist of""basic husbandry, surgical skills, regulations, and so forth? Why do this training""both contracted company and institution need to know? How much training is to be provided""for only basic internal needs or CE? When will training happen""for each new employee, on an as-needed basis, once per year?

As discussed elsewhere in this chapter and with regard to cost accounting in this book, the matter of charges, payments, per diems, and similar cost items will need to be determined. Costs can be absorbed as an institutional support service item under a general operating budget. They may fall into the laboratory animal resources component or possibly the IACUC, or even an established training cost center.

Assessment: Measuring Competency and Evaluating Training

Determining whether someone "knows his stuff" has taken prominence in lab animal training, as in other fields""and rightly so. Much is at stake when an animal is involved. Because investigators and the IACUC, through the protocol review process, have determined that it is ethically appropriate to use animals in a procedure, those persons actually conducting the procedure must be deemed competent at what they do.

Four terms are commonly associated with evaluating training. Assessment is the evaluation or estimation of the nature, ability, or quality of something. Qualifying is the demonstration of capability at something in order to be qualified or accomplished, enabling someone suitable for a particular job or activity""one is said to have qualifications. Competence is the ability to do something successfully or efficiently. And, proficiency is a high degree of competence or skill""one is said to have expertise.

The purposes of assessment in lab animals are many (Popham 2010; Kennedy et al. 2016). They include

• Comparing actual learner performance to the goals of the instruction

• Helping learners make decisions about their next action since staff often work alone

• Monitoring ongoing progress with, for example, complicated surgical procedures

• Assessing the teaching methods as conducted by the institutional trainer

• Revising and improving the institutional training program

• Providing information about capabilities to other stakeholders (e.g., clients of contract research organizations [CROs], AAALAC international site visitors, and USDA veterinary medical officers)

• Qualifying an individual's background knowledge and experience (e.g., during the hiring process or to determine whether a person can opt out of additional training)

• Determining learner satisfaction with training sessions (i.e., fulfilling the principles of WIIFM or motivation according to andragogy)

• Developing self-assessment procedures

The lab animal manager will recognize that being qualified or competent is a demonstration of training and a learner's ability that exceeds basic or elementary copying and regurgitation of educational material. Many organizations throughout the world recognize achievements, accomplishments, and expertise in various disciplines within laboratory animal science; see Appendices 2 through 5. A simple explanation of a new concept (fact or technique) does not equal knowledge or an ability to apply it.

The styles used to assess or evaluate are different from learning styles. In the same way that language, science vernacular, learning disabilities, anxiety, and so forth, affect learning, an assessment of an individual may be challenged by these factors. The facility manager may need to assist in accommodating both, applying one or more of the educational leadership forces presented previously in this chapter.

The facility manager needs to know basic characteristics of assessment processes. They include being simple and fair, which can be said to be transparent; being purposeful and related to job skills and tasks; matching the priorities of the institution; utilizing appropriate testing methods; allowing for recording mistakes in order to inform others (e.g., the IACUC and institutional official) and to identify retraining needs; and offering continuous improvement. The manager should critically assess how evaluations are done. Evaluations should not be assessing what is easiest and what is not relevant. The manager should spot when there is a potential conflict of interest as well.

Examples of what teachers and trainers use for assessment are the following: check-off sheets, adherence to SOPs, concept understanding forms, assessment of previous experience, tests with and without psychometric analysis applied, competency standards coming from the industry (AALAS and PRIM&R apply them for their certification tests), observations while performing tasks, analysis of outcomes and performance (e.g., numbers of cages changed, record-keeping errors, and morbidity and mortality statistics), and rubrics (see further in this chapter). The tools can utilize technology or homegrown products. What is critical is that assessment tools are reliable and validated. In order to accomplish this, the competency criteria should be established ahead of time and communicated to the learner before or during training. Additional information and descriptions can be found in educational references such as Popham (2010) and from the ATD (see Appendix 12.3).

Many members of a research institution can be responsible for and engaged in the various processes of assessing competency. At minimum, they, who are called assessors by Singleton (Kennedy et al. 2016), would include trainers, auditors, veterinarians, vet techs, researchers, managers, and animal care staff. The facility manager is arguably toward the top of the list and should work with the IACUC and trainers to ensure that individuals performing animal activities are capable to the greatest extent possible. The following items are a summary of several management and evaluation approaches the manager can consider:

• Certification and certificates. Managers should appreciate the variety of ways that individuals earn recognition for their training. Generally, a certification indicates a study of a body of knowledge with an evaluative test at the end. A certificate may indicate attendance at a single training session or completion of several criteria in order to show participation. Several institutions and organizations provide training in laboratory animal science, which have been accumulated in the appendices at the end of this chapter.

• Attempts have been made to harmonize training among countries and grant reciprocity for completion of similar study and accumulated experience. Managers should evaluate and appreciate for institutional needs the accomplishments of individuals at other institutions and animal programs. Some of them are described in the appendices.

• Evaluative educational research indicates that persons demonstrate their knowledge and skills in different ways. One person may test better, whereas another may show a skill better, and both would be assets to the animal research team. Managers should recognize that human resource requirements in job descriptions that are too stringent may restrict the pool of good candidates. The terms book learned and street smarts imply different ways to gain knowledge and apply it.

• Postapproval monitoring. The concepts of PAM and the institutional means by which it is conducted are intended to ensure compliance with animal welfare and regulations. As well, PAM activities can potentially be used to evaluate animal users in real circumstances on what they have learned in training sessions and subsequently apply when working in the facility. Additional training may be a suggested outcome of a PAM session.

• Capability in one area may prepare a learner for something else. Educational assessment incorporates formative (as something develops) with summative (at the point of completion) determinations. In another way of managers being motivators of learning, they can utilize the concept of training mixed with "have to know, good to know, fun to know" topics. Training managers can explain, for example, the animal model in an interesting way (fun) and then train on the requirements (have to know). Both of these processes relate to the aforementioned principles of andragogy.

• Indicate that "going to training" is still "going to work." The learner should return from a session and share what was learned, which serves as a measure of knowledge gained. The manager is then assessing the value of a training opportunity, the fact that the learner attended it, and what was presented. This process relates to the concept of ROI in training.

• Challenging trainees. Veteran trainers know students informally categorized as the newbie, the prima donna, and the experienced new hire. Each requires a different training management approach. The newbie is generally the neediest in terms of training because the entire curriculum is new and the starting point may be challenging to find. The prima donna comes across as knowing it all and objects to being trained again; an option is to test or evaluate the individual for proficiency and use this information to determine training requirements. The experienced new hire challenges the trainer by saying, "At my old job, we did it this way," which can be used to consider as a point of evaluation by the institution or be turned back to say, "Thanks, good to know; here, we want to be consistent in our practices."

• The "oops!" factor of making new mistakes (MnMs). Mistakes will happen in research. Einstein said, "If we knew what it was we were doing, it would not be called research, would it?" These sentiments are not granting permission to make mistakes, but are supportive of the R for refinement to practice before doing. MnMs in a controlled learning environment with in vitro methods can be a satisfactory approach. Use mouse models, then mouse carcasses, and then the real mouse for the actual procedure in order to manage a training process. Increasingly, there are publications in the lab animal science literature describing methods to train using alternatives to animals.

• Protocol documentation of training. The possibility of having abbreviated rÁ©sumÁ©s or training transcripts for each staff member in a database (i.e., LMS), kept up to date and accessible by the institution, could assist in completing the training and experience section of animal use protocols.

• Continuous professional development (CPD). The manager offers training opportunities on a continual basis as part of the institutional and leadership culture about training to be as proficient, competent, and updated as possible. Many job categories in laboratory animal science require professional credentials, and persons must maintain their knowledge through CE. For some, credentials are maintained in a registry (e.g., the AALAS RALAT, RLAT, and RLATG technician levels, where the R prefix indicates being registered). More and more, training programs are receiving Registry of Approved Continuing Education (RACE) approval by the American Association of Veterinary State Boards (AAVSB) (www.aavsb.org/race) for CE to help maintain state licensure for veterinarians and veterinary technicians. RACE is seen as a measure of quality control in training.

• Rubrics. A rubric is a tool to conduct an evaluation, by scoring ability, whether it is stating a fact or performing a task. There are three elements in a rubric (Popham 2010): (1) evaluative criteria to judge, (2) quality distinctions on how to judge, and (3) an application strategy for the score. For example, a score of zero means unable, 1 for capable, and 2 for well capable. The scoring scale is usually expanded to allow for fewer absolute distinctions, but there is still an acceptable cutoff score based on objective criteria. "Technical skills seem best suited for this numeric metric evaluation," opined Waldis (2013), who, along with Clifford et al. (2013), has published examples of rubrics for laboratory animal science. The facility manager can work with the facility trainer to help establish the validity and reliability of institutionally based rubrics.

• In pedagogical schooling, where the passing of information is focused on the student, the teacher often conducts assessments (commonly quizzes, tests, and practicums) that are formative and summative. Formative assessments occur during training, as knowledge develops or forms. Summative assessments, on the other hand, tend to occur at the end of a unit of training or perhaps as an overall cumulative examination or demonstration of knowledge. Both have their value for the learners to be informed about their progress and accomplishment of course objectives. Additionally, the manager can use these assessments to evaluate trainers, to inform them about their impact on trainees. Assessments can be powerful for all the stakeholders to gauge learning. Keeping records of assessments is a management tool to measure learning and progress over time.

• Self-assessment is another kind of evaluation, but it is more personal. The individual learner is asked to compare knowledge and skills gained over a period of time. It is a reflection of what has been achieved. A self-assessment can be structured with specific questions, tied into learning objectives, or left to be free form. It can take the structure known as pre- and posttesting, where existing knowledge is measured at the beginning and end of a training session using the same evaluative tool, like a 10-question quiz.

• Training metrics. While not a measurement of learning per se, metrics used to evaluate a training program may be part of the manager's job. The data might include the numbers of persons trained and retrained, numbers certified, types of training, costs associated with training both internally and externally, and numbers of hours spent training. One perspective on what can be measured is available as a webinar entitled "Metrics Applied to Training in Lab Animal Sciences" (Kennedy 2014d).

Summary

As presented throughout this book, the duties, expectations, and responsibilities of the manager of a laboratory animal facility have generally expanded and become more complex since the publication of the first edition. Part of that increase has been the manager's tasks associated with training. Concurrently, for many reasons, the training environment has changed. Whereas before the manager's position description probably included training as one more task to address, today the breadth of training responsibilities is far greater. Regulations, animal welfare, procedural refinements, societal ethics, and more are all demanding increased effort at training. Thus, any of the following are possibilities related to training and what the manager might be doing:

• To be the manager of the training department in a large animal care and use program

• To be a manager alongside one or more trainers

• To be the manager supervising one or more trainers

• To be responsible for implementing or revising a training program

• To maintain the database of training records (and a composite of knowledge) for presentation to regulatory agencies or clients using a CRO

• To work with the public relations department of an institution to inform the public, providing outreach programs to community organizations and schools

• To assist with the education of students, from elementary to graduate, on the STEM disciplines, because predictions are that a science and technology educated workforce will be greatly needed in the next decade and beyond

• To work with the IACUC in managing teaching and training protocols, as well as research and testing protocols

In other words, as would be expected, there is no "one-size-fits-all" approach that describes what it means to manage training. Each institution will have its own needs and outcomes. Accordingly, this chapter has first familiarized""as a foundation""the lab animal manager with concepts of developing training programs, what many would label as TtT. There exist now many more resources for that information. Assuming that base level of knowledge, the topics in this revised chapter have moved to focusing more on the management concepts of running a training program. With that have been bits of educational theory for the manager to appreciate.

The manager of a laboratory animal facility plays a very important role in facilitating training within an institution. One should appreciate the interesting play on words here""the verb facilitate and the noun facility""which originate from the word facilis in Latin-based languages, meaning "to help something run more smoothly and effectively." It is the responsibility of the institution's ethical oversight committee""the IACUC""to ensure that appropriate training is accomplished. The manager can make that more facile, meaning "with ease," for all the stakeholders.

The facility manager is aided by various organizations and modalities to ensure training in the care and use of laboratory animals. In today's learning environments, distance and time do not limit the availability of training. And there are numerous teaching methods to assist learners with the advent of technology and studies of cognition. Regardless, the traditional humanistic approaches to instill the culture of training""the "people" part""are where the facility manager can and should contribute.

Appendix 12.1. Educational Theory and Concepts Applied to Laboratory Animal Science

Introduction

Typically, the manager of an organization is charged with "getting the job done." In response, the commitment to and actions taken may be directed toward those goals. While this approach is practical and generally efficient, it also prudent to be familiar with theories and concepts behind the practices of managing a particular process. This chapter has focused on the practical and applied steps related to managing training. It turns now to some of the reasoning and history that support them.

In the spirit of learning""being a lifelong learner""the topics in this section are meant to enrich the background of those who manage training in some respect. Broader training is seldom a bad idea, but a topic may not be relevant and efficient to learn "at the moment."

Is It Education, Teaching, or Training?

Usage of the terms education and training is more often a philosophical conversation by those (epistemologists) who study knowledge and acquiring it. Likely, it has minimal impact on the daily operations in the animal facility. However, a manager will be better informed when discussing the distinctions and nuances of curriculum and competency with trainers and educators, who of course use the specific vocabulary of their profession, as do scientists and architects, with whom the facility manager may be more familiar.

One definition of education is "the process of receiving or giving systematic instruction, especially at a school or university" (Oxford 2015a), which is synonymous with the concept of formal education as reflected in academic degrees (BS, MS, PhD, etc.). But, an education comes from many sources, as managers know from reviewing rÁ©sumÁ©s and hiring staff.

Irrespective of the terms, the learning strategies""as used by those training in lab animal facilities""are dependent on the purpose and type of instruction. The word instruction comes from the Latin instruere, for "building in" (Shakeshaft et al. 2013). So, whether educating, teaching, or training, the objective is to build in information, by instructing the student, first imparting the knowledge and later assessing its application. When the student is, for example, husbandry staff, veterinary staff, scientist, IACUC member, or facility repair person, that is the point where terms like education and training become relevant for the lab animal manager.

Relationship between Training and Human Resources

The facility manager should recognize what are the responsibilities of HR and what is correctable through training. HR does assist in the traditional duties of hiring new staff and disciplining existing members. From perhaps a more positive aspect, the terms human capacity and human capital have emerged in HR vocabulary to recognize the development of knowledge, skills, and attitudes (KSA) by employees. Training can and should be used by managers to build capacity and capital in their employees. Such actions can be applied to specific individuals for their career development, as well as to various sized groups to improve the overall production of the institution. An astute manager will identify where training""as a tool""can be used for this purpose and take advantage of the potential (Dinkel 2015). Further, it is why managers need to engage with their institutional training programs.

The two leadership forces of technical and humanistic are generic and applicable to all forms of management. The other three forces""educational, symbolic, and cultural""can be seen as prevalent characteristics of exemplary training programs. For example, a proactive manager demonstrates these educational leadership traits when considering the wasted resources represented by a training room sitting empty or staff not attending a local training course because they do not value learning or feel there is no personal benefit. On the other hand, mixed leadership messages are sent when the manager turns down a staff member willing to pay the transportation costs herself to attend a local training session because she asked for approval of a day""a "training day"""to attend.

Appendix 12.2. Schools Offering Training in Lab Animal Science

Since the early days of Dr. Brimhall at the Mayo Clinic, when learning about lab animal science was an on-the-job training effort, various schools have developed curriculum to teach about animal research.

From an informal poll of trainers on the LAWTE listserv conducted in 2015, it was learned that there are scores of educational institutions offering extensive coursework in laboratory animal science topics throughout the world. By extensive, it is meant that there is a strong and specific focus to teach about laboratory animal science, but a degree in the subject is not necessarily conferred by the institution. What this body of training means to laboratory animal facility managers is that informed groups of students will enter the animal research field already possessing skill sets and an animal welfare mind-set for research, testing, and teaching, and opportunities for collaboration between research and educational institutions.

Veterinary Technician Programs

Possessing coursework in general animal health and procedures is valuable in staff who work in laboratory animal facilities. Veterinary technician programs are available in most states in America, where there are both 2- and 4-year programs, and in many provinces in Canada, where the programs are 2 and 3 years in length. Many programs have been accredited by committees of the individual countries. In America and Canada, accreditation is conducted by the Committee on Veterinary Technician Education and Activities (CVTEA) of the AVMA. There are several distance education programs as well. In an accredited veterinary technician program, part of the curriculum is the requirement for content in "laboratory animal procedures"; see Section 8 of the task list at https://www.avma.org/ProfessionalDevelopment/Education/Accreditation/Programs/Pages/cvtea-pp-appendix-i.aspx.

Bachelor's Programs

A few schools offer a degree in animal health science to train veterinary technicians for a variety of animal fields, including animal research. The curriculum at California State Polytechnic University, Pomona has been published (Kennedy 2014a), which indicates one approach to satisfy the breadth of material needed to prepare for a career in lab animal care. Several other schools, as shown in the table, offer an emphasis in laboratory animal science in their programs.

Master's Programs

Drexel University, when it was known as Hahnemann, was the first school to develop the master of laboratory animal science (MLAS) degree. Starting as a face-to-face program in 1987, since 2009 it has conducted an online program as well. See http://catalog.drexel.edu/graduate/schoolofbiomedicalsciences/laboratoryanimalsciences and Kennedy (2014e) for more information. Another program was launched at Eastern Virginia Medical School in 2014. Similar to Drexel, it "allows maximum flexibility for the students " who may be currently working within the field of laboratory animal science [or] looking for opportunities in research laboratories but do not want to relocate to attend traditional master's programs." See www.evms.edu/education/masters_programs/las for more information.

Doctorate-Level Programs

Well known are the residency programs to train veterinarians in laboratory animal science in order to become diplomates of the American College of Laboratory Animal Medicine (DACLAM). One combines the veterinary medicine degree with a lab animal master's degree (Tufts). More information can be obtained from the website of the American Society of Laboratory Animal Practitioners (ASLAP) (www.aslap.org), which maintains a voluntary listing of residency programs, and ACLAM, which lists all ACLAM-recognized training programs (www.aclam.org/education-and-training/training-programs). Additionally, the AVMA maintains lists of the veterinary colleges (www.avma.org/ProfessionalDevelopment/Education/Foreign/Pages/ECFVG-world-colleges-degrees.aspx) and the types of veterinary medical degrees (www.avma.org/ProfessionalDevelopment/Education/Foreign/Documents/ecfvg12.pdf) granted throughout the world.

Representative Schools in the World with an Emphasized Curriculum in Lab Animal Science

School	Location	Program	General Comment
Aachen University	Germany	Master in laboratory animal science	http:​//msc-lab-animal.com/program
Alamance Community College	North Carolina	Associate's degree, 2 year
Becker College	Massachusetts	Animal science/veterinary technology degree with a laboratory animal emphasis, 4 year
Bel-Rae Institute of Animal Technology	Colorado	2-year associate's degree in applied science in veterinary technology
California State Polytechnic University, Pomona	California	Bachelor of science, animal health science	One of several veterinary technology programs accredited by the CVTEA of the AVMA
Delaware Valley University	Pennsylvania	Bachelor of science, 4 year	www​.delval.edu/academics​/undergraduate/agriculture-environmental-sciences​/animal-science​/animal-science
Drexel University	Pennsylvania	Master of laboratory animal science	http://catalog​.drexel​.edu/graduate/schoolofbiomedicalsciences​/laboratoryanimalsciences
Eastern Virginia Medical School	Virginia	Master of laboratory animal science	www​.evms.edu/education​/masters_programs/las
FRAME (Fund for the Replacement of Animals in Medical Experiments)	United Kingdom, Central Europe, and Scandinavia	Training schools in experimental design and statistics done in association with universities	www​.frame.org.uk/training-schools
Harcum College	Pennsylvania	Veterinary technology, 2 year	1972, AVMA accredited
Individual institutions	Mexico	Permanent training program for staff	Mexican legislation; NOM-062""technical specifications for the production, care, and use of laboratory animals
Individual institutions	Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Cuba, Uruguay, and Venezuela	Coursework for local staff
Johns Hopkins School of Medicine	Maryland	Research fellowship in molecular and comparative pathobiology	Residency, including ACLAM
Kerala Veterinary and Animal Sciences University	India	Certificate in laboratory animal medicine	Doctor of veterinary medicine (DVM) oriented, in affiliation with the University of Guelph, Canada; online course with a practical component in India, www​.kvasu.ac.in and www​.open.uoguelph.ca
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) Division of Comparative Medicine	Massachusetts		Residency, including ACLAM
Mesa College	California	Associate's degree program in veterinary technology
Metropolitan Community College""Maple Woods	Missouri	Associate's degree in applied animal science; veterinary technology, 2 year
Michigan State University	Michigan	Bachelor's for technologist, 4 year
Norfolk County Agricultural High School	Massachusetts	High school	Not accredited; by arrangement with local biotechnology companies
North Carolina A&T University	North Carolina	Bachelor's and master's in lab animal science
Norwegian Veterinary Institute	Norway	Courses for researchers and technicians	http://oslovet​.norecopa​.no/dokument.aspx?dokument=74
Pennsylvania State University	Pennsylvania	Bachelor's, 4 year; graduate program	http://vbs​.psu.edu/ and http:​//animalscience.psu.edu/
Pierce College	Washington	Veterinary technology, 2 year
Purdue University	Indiana	Associate's and bachelor's, veterinary technology	Bachelor of science includes laboratory animal management (regulatory issues and facilities design/management)
State University of New York, Delhi	New York	2-year associate's degree in applied science in veterinary technology	www​.delhi.edu/academics​/majors/vet-sci/index.php
Tufts University	Massachusetts	Combined DVM and lab animal master's
Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona	Spain	Master of laboratory animal science and welfare	http://pagines​.uab.cat
University of California, Merced	California	Academic credit	In development
University of Cincinnati	Ohio	Master's degree program in biomedical research	In development
University of Copenhagen	Denmark	Postgraduate education for designated veterinarians according to EU criteria	http://labveteurope​.ku.dk/
University of Guelph	Canada	Certificate in laboratory animal medicine	DVM oriented, online course with a practical component in Canada, www​.lam-cdn.opened.uoguelph.ca
University of Guelph, Canada	United States	Certificate in laboratory animal medicine	DVM oriented, in affiliation with the University of Guelph, Canada; online course with a practical component in the United States, www​.lam.OpenEd.uoguelph.ca
University of Guelph, Canada	Mexico	Certificate in laboratory animal medicine	DVM oriented, in affiliation with the University of Guelph, Canada; online course with a practical component in Mexico, www​.open.uoguelph.ca
University of Maryland, College Park	Maryland	Bachelor of science, laboratory animal management, 4 year
Wayne County Community College/Wayne State University	Michigan	Veterinary technician	Joint program to offer the student an associate's degree or a bachelor's degree
Weill Cornell Medical College participates with Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center and Rockefeller University	New York	Residency program for veterinarians	Tri-institutional training program in laboratory animal medicine and science; NIH supported

Note: This compilation of schools is subject to change and does not include all with a curriculum in lab animal science.

Appendix 12.3. Programs for Trainers

Learning is an everyday, all-the-time practice. Sometimes the trainer has to go back to school, both to learn to train and to learn the subject material. For formalized learning, the lab animal trainer has numerous options, including the following.

Association for Talent Development

What has been known as the American Society for Training and Development (ASTD) rebranded itself in 2014 to become the Association for Talent Development (ATD), "a professional membership organization supporting those who develop the knowledge and skills of employees in organizations around the world" (www.td.org). ATD intends to "support the talent development profession by providing trusted content in the form of research, books, webcasts, events, and education programs." The association hosts several conferences each year. ATD also offers an internationally recognized credential program (Certified Professional in Learning and Performance [CPLP]) that covers the entire talent development profession. Eligible candidates must complete both a knowledge and a skills application exam (SAE).

Association of Veterinary Technician Educators

The Association of Veterinary Technician Educators (AVTE) was established in 1973 to promote quality education in veterinary technology. Focused on motivating and preparing teachers in the classroom for "the next generation of professional veterinary technicians" (www.avte.net), there is a mutual pedagogy and interest in animal welfare with laboratory animal science. The AVTE maintains a listserv and offers a biennial symposium. Related information about veterinary technology can also be found at https://www.aavsb.org/VTNE.

Colleges and Universities

Many institutions of higher learning offer classes in association with their education or teacher training departments for members of the community. Topics like curriculum development, educational technology, and educational leadership are among the offerings. It is possible to obtain the bachelor of arts (BA), master of education (MEd), doctorate in education (EdD), and philosophy doctorate (PhD) degrees. The website www.educationdegree.com has a compilation of more than 20,000 teacher education degree and certificate programs. Some programs are offered online.

Laboratory Animal Welfare Training Exchange

Established in 1994, LAWTE has become known internationally for its purpose of training trainers in the specific domain of laboratory animal science. The mission statement is clear: "expanding animal welfare and enhancing public understanding through effective training and education of animal research professionals" (www.lawte.org). LAWTE has had conferences every two years since its inception, presents on training subjects at other animal meetings, and presents webinars on training topics.

Appendix 12.4. Recognized Laboratory Animal Science Credentials

Education and training programs vary around the world. How individuals are recognized for completing their training to establish their capabilities and credentials to use laboratory animals in research, testing, and teaching also shows great variation. This table is a compilation of the designations, licenses, registrations, registries, certifications, and other institutional or organizational terms used for that purpose. It should help the lab animal manager to recognize and confirm the credentials from other regions and to find more information. Because programs evolve, omissions are likely.

Table

Organization Credentials

Appendix 12.5. Organizations within Laboratory Animal Science Offering Training, Courses, and More

Training is a lifelong journey, and in research we constantly are learning something new. Two terms describe this concept for laboratory animal managers: continuous professional development (CPD), often used in Europe, and continuing education (CE) or continuing education units (CEUs), accumulated from participation in a training event. Various groups in laboratory animal science, including professional societies, government agencies, and vendors, provide CPD and CE training. The LAWTE organization has designated vendors as CTPers, which stands for commercial training partners (Kennedy 2013), who, besides product literature, provide online resources, have trainers on staff, and host webinars to educate both generally and specifically on their services, products, and technologies.

By no means could a listing like this be complete, and fortunately for the field, it is ever expanding. This list is provided as a start for managers who find themselves needing training resources; from there, it is a journey through links. Many of these are based in America, but are connected internationally. It is an indication of the network of trainers, teachers, and educators in all disciplines throughout the world. It also demonstrates the dedication of both people and organizations to the notion of training in laboratory animal science.

The selection includes organizations that offer training in laboratory animal science that the facility manager can consider for staff and personal CPD or CE. Much of the information is quoted directly from the organization's websites, links to which are provided. Besides the websites, many organizations have social media accounts associated with Facebook, Twitter, and LinkedIn, which facilitate the exchange of information and provide resources for managing all aspects of the laboratory animal facility.

AAALAC International, www.aaalac.org

AAALAC International, formerly known as the Association for Assessment and Accreditation of Laboratory Animal Care, is a "private, nonprofit organization that promotes the humane treatment of animals in science through voluntary accreditation and assessment programs." It does so by offering a variety of training opportunities throughout the world. These include webinars, presentations at conferences, and the AAALAC International Education and Outreach Program. For its accreditation mandate, it works with managers of animal facilities. Through individualized programs, it offers "education and outreach modules designed to provide the information you need to proactively manage animal care and use issues in ways that meet AAALAC International standards."

AALAS, www.aalas.org

Besides supporting the largest conference for laboratory animal personnel in the world, the American Association for Laboratory Animal Science (AALAS) provides many options for training, including the AALAS Learning Library (ALL 2016); the Institute for Laboratory Animal Management (AALAS 2016c); several listservs (AALAS 2016d), including TechLink, CompMed, and the IACUC Forum; manuals for the certification examinations for ALAT, LAT, and LATG; webinars; and educational resources, including audiovisual aids. Products are available at https://www.aalas.org/education/educational-resources.

Additionally, local branches (chapters) of AALAS produce training products for use by their members. Modeled for the AALAS technician certification exams, they are varied in their approach to training, being online, scheduled group sessions, developed with the aid of curriculum designers; self-paced, with and without assignments; mentored by experienced technicians and managers; and more. Participation can be used for the AALAS Registry Program.

ACLAM, www.aclam.org

The goals of the American College of Laboratory Animal Medicine (ACLAM) are today as when defined in 1958: "to encourage education, training and research in laboratory animal medicine; to establish standards of training and experience for qualification of specialists in laboratory animal medicine; and to further the recognition of such qualified specialists by suitable certification and other means." The members of ACLAM produce textbooks and educational materials. The college promotes the training of veterinarians to become board certified in laboratory animal medicine, known by the designation of diplomate.

APV, www.primatevets.org

The Association of Primate Veterinarians (APV) focuses on education and training for those working with nonhuman primates (NHPs). Each year, the APV meets prior to the AALAS conference to discuss matters concerned with the management of NHPs. It is not restricted to veterinarians. The APV website provides training materials from its past meetings and many links for other sources of NHP information.

CALAS/ACSAL, www.calas-acsal.org

The Canadian Association for Laboratory Animal Science (CALAS)/Association Canadienne pour la Science des Animaux de Laboratoire (ACSAL) is "a national association dedicated to providing high quality training and educational resources to animal care professionals across Canada. We believe animal research, when necessary, must be conducted professionally, ethically and compassionately." CALAS/ACSAL has training and certification programs that are voluntary and support the veterinary group.

CCAC, www.ccac.ca

The Canadian Council on Animal Care (CCAC) (Conseil Canadien de Protection des Animaux), often working with CALAS, offers web-based seminars, training modules, workshops, and other educational materials in both English and French. The CCAC develops different educational and reference materials to support the specialized training needs of all animal users (including investigators, graduate students, postdoctoral fellows, and research staff), animal health professionals, animal care committee members, and institutional officials (senior administrators) directly responsible for animal care and use programs. CCAC's guidelines can be found at www.ccac.ca/Documents/Standards/Guidelines/CCAC_Guidelines_on_Training_of_Personnel_Working_With_Animals_in_Science.pdf.

CITI, www.citiprogram.org

The Collaborative Institutional Training Initiative (CITI) provides a subscription service of online training modules, available 24/7, in many languages, maintaining a database of learners and e-mail transcripts. The CITI mission statement is "to promote the public's trust in the research enterprise by providing high quality, peer reviewed, web based, research education materials to enhance the integrity and professionalism of investigators and staff conducting research." The curriculum includes many disciplines pertaining to training persons for work in an animal facility: Animal Care and Use (ACU), Biosafety and Biosecurity (BSS), Export Control (EC), Good Clinical Practice (GCP), Human Subjects Research (HSR), Information Privacy and Security (IPS), and Responsible Conduct of Research (RCR), including the Conflicts of Interest (COI) course. As taken from the CITI website, "the ACU materials cover general principles of ethical care and use of animals in research, training, and testing, as well as focusing on the care and use of particular animals. Content is designed to meet U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) and Office of Laboratory Animal Welfare (OLAW) requirements for basic training in the humane care and use of animals."

CLATR, www.clatr.org

The Committee for Laboratory Animal Training and Research (CLATR) (formerly known as ACLAD) is an organization that was created to aide laboratory animal and comparative medicine trainee career development by providing research mentorship and networking opportunities, facilitating sharing of training resources among training programs, and promoting interactions of trainee-focused committees of national organizations.

CRL, www.criver.com/customer-service/education-training/educations

Charles River Laboratories (CRL) "hosts frequent courses, seminars, and symposiums dedicated to advancing attendees' knowledge of their respective fields" around the world. CRL is well known for its annual short course held in the Boston area, which covers both contemporary and traditional animal issues in its curriculum, designed for all position levels in the facility, including the facility manager. It also issues booklets, posters, and other training, much of it free of charge.

ETPLAS, http://etplas.eu

The Education and Training Platform for Laboratory Animal Science (ETPLAS), or simply The Platform, provides "a forum for exchanging information on laboratory animal science education and training therefore helping to establish mutually recognised training courses. Successful completion of such a harmonised course enables working with laboratory animals and promotes free movement of competent personnel in the EU." It started in 2015 with its information exchange.

FBR, http://fbresearch.org

"Established in 1981, the Foundation for Biomedical Research (FBR) is the nation's oldest and largest organization dedicated to improving human and animal health by promoting public understanding and support for humane and responsible animal research." FBR does not directly host conferences or issue credentials, but its frequent posts and e-mail are a source of information useful for training on a broad number of subjects, from animal models to regulations. Managers and trainers can subscribe and share awareness about laboratory animal research, testing, and teaching beyond what otherwise might be provided.

FGB, www.fondazioneguidobernardini.org/en/foundation/aboutus.aspx

The Fondazione Guido Bernardini (FGB) was established in 2009 in Milano, Italy, as an independent, nonprofit organization in memory of Guido Bernardini. "FGB is devoted to continuing education and training of professionals involved in the care, welfare and use of laboratory animals; the overall mission is to support the humane and responsible use of animals in science and to promote the quality of biomedical research by encouraging high standards of knowledge and competence in scientific and technical staff."

FLAIRE Learning, https://flairelearning.com

This website was developed by Professor Paul Flecknell and colleagues at Newcastle University. It focuses on training in anesthesia, pain, and distress. Much of the curriculum is aligned with the learning objectives of the European Union and is offered gratis.

Humane Endpoints, www.humane-endpoints.info/en

The Humane Endpoints website helps scientists identify humane endpoints in rodents. The website offers pictures, videos, and training modules, which can be used in training programs for CPD.

IAT, www.iat.org.uk

Started in 1949, but officially recognized a year later, the Institute of Animal Technology (IAT) in the United Kingdom is the oldest laboratory animal science professional society (Kennedy 2015). As stated at its website, "the IAT's purpose is to advance knowledge and promote excellence in the care and welfare of animals in science and to enhance the standards and status of those professionally engaged in the care, welfare and use of animals in science." The IAT is internationally regarded for its training programs for animal care personnel, which offers many levels of credentials (see Appendix 12.4), and its annual congress. Its website is also rich with educational and welfare materials.

iCARE Project, https://grants.nih.gov/grants/olaw/interagency_icare.htm, www.primr.org/icare

In 2017, the NIH, in partnership with PRIM&R and others, developed the Interagency Collaborative Animal Research Education (iCARE) Project and began offering Train the Trainers Institute (TTI) programs. The objective of iCARE is to use active learning pedagogy to train IACUC members and institutional and animal program personnel to meet their responsibilities for animal welfare oversight.

ICLAS, http://iclas.org

The mission of the International Council for Laboratory Animal Science (ICLAS) education committee is to promote and harmonize education and training in laboratory animal science, particularly in regions of the world where such opportunities are lacking or few. Among the council's goals relating to laboratory animal management and training are to assess needs of ICLAS members with regard to education and training; provide assistance to regions for setting up training and certification programs for laboratory animal care staff, research staff, veterinary staff, and laboratory animal specialists; and decide what role the education committee should play in promoting public education and understanding of laboratory animal science.

ILAM, www.aalas.org/education/ilam

Founded in 1991 by LAMA in cooperation with AALAS, the Institute for Laboratory Animal Management (ILAM) is now supported by AALAS. The focus and emphasis is on both historical and emerging issues in laboratory animal management. ILAM is an "educational program developed to provide instruction in management concepts that is applicable to the laboratory animal science industry and to enhance communication, team building, and networking among colleagues with mutual interests." ILAM is a 2-year program conducted in Memphis, Tennessee, with classes of about 50 students networking and learning from knowledgeable persons in their disciplines.

JAX, www.jax.org/education-and-learning

The Jackson (JAX) Laboratory not only is a provider of thousands of different kinds of genetically engineered mice, but also has a mission to teach. The opening page for training on its website is very telling: "Education and Learning. From high school summer programs to conferences that further the education of practicing scientists and professionals, we advance science and improve health through our commitment to education." The JAX Lab offers webinars, training workshops, conferences at its laboratories and research institutions, on-demand teaching materials, and more.

LAMA, www.lama-online.org

The Laboratory Animal Management Association (LAMA) is recognized as the premier organization to provide training on managing laboratory animal facilities. "LAMA is an association dedicated to advancing the quality of management and care of laboratory animals throughout the world. Since its establishment in 1984, LAMA has grown to over 700 members residing in geographical locations as widespread as Asia, Australia, Europe and Canada. The membership continues an active role in AALAS and the career field by providing leadership to numerous committees and organizations on local, state and national levels."

LAWTE, www.lawte.org

The Laboratory Animal Welfare Training Exchange is the consummate organization for materials related to training in laboratory animal science in general. The association offers a listserv, which is maintained by AALAS. The website has an archive of training materials for members. Its members are international (in 2015, a dozen countries were represented), and they host a biennial conference.

NAS, www.nasonline.org

The National Academy of Sciences (NAS) was founded in 1863 to support science. Today, the three academies for science, engineering, and medicine address pressing issues of society and "solve complex problems and inform public policy decisions," many of which concern the work of animal research facilities, for example, pain and distress, occupational health, and the compilation of the Guide. Through workshops, publications, and conferences, the teaching mission of the NAS is reflected in this sentence quoted from the mission statement: "[the] Academies also encourage education and research, recognize outstanding contributions to knowledge, and increase public understanding in matters of science, engineering, and medicine."

NAVTA, www.navta.net

The National Association of Veterinary Technicians in America (NAVTA) represents veterinary technicians and assistants in all disciplines of veterinary health care, many of whom work in laboratory animal science as well. Specifically, NAVTA has partnered with the Society of Laboratory Animal Veterinary Technicians (www.slavt.net) "to develop a network of professional veterinary technicians dedicated to the advancement of responsible and humane laboratory animal care and use to benefit humans and animals, to exchange information and expertise in the care and use of laboratory animals and to advance by actively seeking continuing education opportunities for the members." Several CE resources are maintained in a tab on the NAVTA website.

NC3RS, www.nc3rs.org.uk

The NC3Rs is a UK-based scientific organization dedicated to replacing, refining, and reducing the use of animals in research and testing (the 3Rs). Various "projects aim to provide training through web-based tutorials and other resources on best practice in the refinement of animal experiments."

NIH/OLAW, http://grants.nih.gov/grants/olaw/educational_resources.htm

While the U.S. federal Office of Laboratory Animal Welfare is primarily regarded for its role in monitoring compliance with PHS policy in "assured" institutions, it does so because of the educational programs that it supports and provides to the global laboratory animal science community to ensure the humane care and use of animals. The website is an information-rich resource for both managers and trainers to facilitate training, which includes regional workshops, societal conferences, online seminars, archives of presentations, and more.

NORINA, www.oslovet.norecopa.no/NORINA

The Norwegian Inventory of Alternatives (NORINA) is an English language database of more than 3500 audiovisual aids useful as alternatives or supplements in education and training. It is affiliated with Norecopa, which is Norway's National Consensus Platform for the advancement of the 3Rs. Norecopa was founded in 2007.

PRIM&R, www.primr.org

Public Responsibility in Medicine and Research (PRIM&R) offers conferences, webinars, regional meetings, and archives of training materials. Since 2007, PRIM&R has maintained the CPIA program. The organization's mission statement is to "advance the highest ethical standards in the conduct of biomedical, behavioral, and social science research. We accomplish this mission through education, membership services, professional certification, public policy initiatives, and community building."

Purina LabDiet, www.labdiet.com

Purina offers the PMI LabDiet Laboratory Animal Care Course, which was inaugurated circa 1960 to provide an introduction to the laboratory animal field. It is a correspondence course designed for entry-level technicians and valuable for anyone new to laboratory animal science and wishing to progress to AALAS certification. The course is offered in the classic print form or in a new interactive online form. A certificate of completion is provided.

SCAW, www.scaw.com

The Scientist Center for Animal Welfare (SCAW) supports training objectives through conferences and educational materials at its website and regional conferences around the United States. "By addressing animal research challenges directly through education and training, SCAW serves to facilitate open discussion and helps craft solutions as well as promote best practices. Through its outreach to the broader research community, SCAW demonstrates its commitment to excellence in animal care and science."

SLAVT, http://slavt.net

Training managers can support the education of their facility veterinary technicians through the Society of Laboratory Animal Veterinary Technicians (SLAVT). "The Society of Laboratory Animal Veterinary Technicians is an emerging group focused on national recognition through training and certification for veterinary technicians in the field of laboratory animal medicine." It holds meetings in conjunction with AALAS and its branches.

USDA/APHIS, www.aphis.usda.gov/wps/portal/aphis/ourfocus/animalwelfare

The Animal Care division of the U.S. Department of Agriculture/Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (USDA/APHIS) is responsible for upholding and enforcing the Animal Welfare Act. Representatives frequently participate in conferences with AALAS, National Institutes of Health (NIH)/OLAW, AAALAC International, PRIM&R, and other organizations concerned with the training of animal care providers. The experience and training of individuals engaged with animals must be documented in applications proposed for their use in research, testing, and training.

The Animal Welfare Information Center (AWIC) within USDA (https://awic.nal.usda.gov/about-awic) was established in 1985 to provide "information products, services, and activities to help the regulated community with employee training" related to animal use. It participates in several outreach services available to facility managers, including "conducting workshops both at [the National Agricultural Library] and outside facilities for researchers concerned with meeting the requirements of the AWA, exhibiting at animal-related scientific meetings, giving presentations on AWA-related topics, and publishing the Bulletin."

Various Biomedical Advocacy Groups

States United for Biomedical Research (SUBR) (www.statesforbiomed.org) is "the network of nonprofit associations who have joined forces to promote health through science and education." Across the United States (see their website for the coverage), they promote science education and provide regional conferences about laboratory animal science, often associated with AALAS branch meetings. The topics vary; for example, the Massachusetts Society for Medical Research (MSMR) (www.msmr.org) offers an online course for the unaffiliated member of the animal care and use committee. The California Society for Biomedical Research (CSBR) (www.ca-biomed.org/csbr) works with the state legislature and writes science curriculum. Other states and associations are represented in the graphic available at http://statesforbiomed.org/about-us/members-funders.

Journals

Several journals publish articles on topics related to training and the management of training. The following are representative:

• Animal Lab News (www.alnmag.com), including the "Tools for Training" column

• Animal Technology and Welfare (www.iat.org.uk), the official journal of the IAT and European Federation of Animal Technologists

• Journal of the American Association for Laboratory Animal Science (JAALAS) and Laboratory Animal Science Professional (LAS Pro) (www.aalas.org)

• Lab Animal (American and European editions) (www.labanimal.com), including the "Fruits of Education" column

• Laboratory Animals (Sage Publications) (http://lan.sagepub.com), the official journal for several laboratory animal societies, including the following:

  • AFSTAL (Association FranÁ§aise des Sciences et Techniques de l'Animal de Laboratoire)

  • ESLAV (European Society of Laboratory Animal Veterinarians)

  • FELASA (Federation of European Laboratory Animal Science Associations)

  • GV-SOLAS (Gesellschaft für Versuchstierkunde)

  • ILAF (Israeli Laboratory Animal Forum)

  • LASA (Laboratory Animal Science Association)

  • NVP (Nederlandse Vereniging voor Proefdierkunde)

  • SECAL (Sociedad EspaÁ±ola para las Ciencias del Animal de Laboratorio)

  • SGV (Schweizerische Gesellschaft für Versuchstierkunde)

  • SPCAL (Sociedade Portuguese de Cièncias em Animas de Laboratório)

Additional Training Groups

There are many organizations and societies throughout the world with an interest in training personnel who work with animals in some capacity, whether research, teaching, zoo, wildlife, welfare, alternatives, managing, or another environment. Regardless of the language, the words education and training stand out. A few are listed here to be representative.

• Asian Federation of Laboratory Animal Science Associations (AFLAS), www.aflas-office.org

• Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA), www.aza.org

• Australian and New Zealand Laboratory Animal Association (ANZLAA), www.anzlaa.org

• Belgian Council for Laboratory Animal Science (BCLAS), www.bclas.org

• French Association of Animal Science and Technology Laboratory (AFSTAL), L'Association FranÁ§aise des Sciences et Techniques de l'Animal de Laboratoire, www.afstal.com

• [German] Society of Laboratory Animals (GV-SOLAS), Die Gesellschaft für Versuchstierkunde, www.vtk-online.de

• Italian Association for Laboratory Animal Science (AISAL), Associazione Italiana per le Scienze degli Animali da Laboratorio, www.aisal.org

• SCANBUR Academy, www.scanbur.com/academy; courses are available for animal technicians, researchers, veterinarians, facility managers, and others employed in laboratory animal science

• Singapore Association for Laboratory Animal Science (SALAS), www.salas.sg/v1

• Sociedad EspaÁ±ola para las Ciencias del Animal de Laboratorio (SECAL), http://secal.es

Contributors and Collaborators

The contributions of the following groups and individuals are gratefully acknowledged by the authors. Data on the various lab animal programs around the world were shared. Others read early drafts of the chapter and made valuable improvements.

• LAWTE members and survey responders

• Shannon Reynolds

• Laura Pearson

• Jussi Helppi

• Alistair Reid

• Rubina Calderia

• Octavio Villanueva

• Cindy Pekow

• Catalina Guerra

• Janet Trombley

• Roy Hoglund

• Leah Schmidt

• Lee Shuman

• Amanda Dillard

• Stacy Pritt

• Regina Correa-Murphy

• Nirah Shomer

• Julie R. Kramer

• Tim Allen

• Mark Sharpless

• Pam Grabeel

• Richard Cluck

• Steven Cubitt

• Morag Mackay

• Michelle Calkins

• Dennis Stark

• Anonymous reviewers

• All those who have trained and managed us over the years

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1

In this chapter, the term IACUC will be used to designate the committee or oversight body responsible for oversight of an institution's animal care and use program.

2

The terms learners, students, and trainees will be used synonymously in this chapter. In practice, students may refer to those in a typical classroom setting, and trainees may refer to those completing residencies and internships. All are learners being trained.

Purina Lab Animal Care Course

Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK500448/

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